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Jonathan Swift's masterpiece is the finest satire in the English
language. Shipwrecked traveler Lemuel Gulliver finds himself washed
ashore in Lilliput, a kingdom populated by tiny people. Fascinated by
their exotic visitor, the Lilliputians enlist Gulliver's services in
their bitter civil war. But Gulliver becomes the object of a court
intrigue and has to make a hasty escape. On his next voyage, his ship is
blown off course to Brobdingnag, whose giant inhabitants strike him as
horrific and occasionally revolting. A third journey takes him to
Laputa, a floating island occupied by pedantic scientists and
philosophers. Finally, he encounters a society of rational horses, the
Houyhnhnms, and witnesses the appalling behaviour of their servants the
Yahoos, a group who are in many ways disturbingly similar to Man at his
most bestial. Swift's brilliantly original story is a timeless portrait
of the human condition in all its misery and majesty.
The poem satirizes a petty squabble by comparing it to the epic world of the gods. It was based on an incident recounted by Pope's friend, John Caryll. Arabella Fermor and her suitor, Lord Petre, were both from aristocratic recusant Catholic families at a period in England when under such laws as the Test Act, all denominations except Anglicanism suffered legal restrictions and penalties (for example Petre could not take up his place in the House of Lords as a Catholic). Petre, lusting after Arabella, had cut off a lock of her hair without permission, and the consequent argument had created a breach between the two families. Pope, also a Catholic, wrote the poem at the request of friends in an attempt to "comically merge the two." He utilized the character Belinda to represent Arabella and introduced an entire system of "sylphs," or guardian spirits of virgins, a parodized version of the gods and goddesses of conventional epic.
The Way of the World is a play written by British playwright William Congreve. It premiered in 1700 in the theatre in Lincoln's Inn Fields in London. It is widely regarded as being one of the best Restoration comedies written and is still performed sporadically to this day.
This grammar has been written specially for non-Norwegians. Our aim has been to give a simple, step-hy-step presentation of the grammatical rules and systems of Norwegian «bokmâl», one of the two official written variants of Norwegian. The many examples given throughout the book assist the reader in practical usages which have proved difficult for those learning the language. As the intention of this book is to give a practical guide to modern Norwegian as it is used in an everyday context, emphasis has been given to providing translations of the Norwegian examples which are as colloquial and idiomatic as possible. The British English variants used throughout in the translations may on occasion appear unfamiliar to speakers of. for example. American English, but this should not be an obstacle to a full understanding of the text.
Haslum, January 1986
Ase-Berit and Rolf Strandskogen Barbara White
Contents
Preface ................................................ 9
I Parts of speech ..................................... 11
VERBS ................................................. 12
INFINITIVE ............................................ 12
IMPERATIVE .......................................... 15
SUBJUNCTIVE ......................................... I7
INDICATIVE ........................................... I7
Active .................................................. 17
Passive ................................................. 18
Present ................................................. 18
Past (Imperfect) ......................................... 20
Perfect.................................................. 21
Pluperfect......................................•........ 22
Future.................................................. 23
Future Perfect ........................................... 26
Conditional ............................................. 26
Conditional Perfect....................................... 27
The Continuous Aspect ................................... 27
SEQUENCE OF TENSES ................................ 28
MODAL AUXILIARIES.................................. 29
Modal auxiliacies without a main verb ...................... 32
TRANSITIVE AND INTRANSITIVE VERBS ............. 33
Conjugation of some intransitive and transitive verbs......... 34
SEPARABLE AND INSEPARABLE COMPOUND VERBS
PRESENT PARTICIPLE................................. 37
VERBS ENDING IN -S .................................. 3S
CONJUGATIONS ....................................... 40
ARTICLES.............................................. 45
FORM ................................................. 45
Articles in relation to nouns ............................... 45
Articles in relation to adjectives ........................... 46
Preface ................................................ 9
I Parts of speech ..................................... 11
VERBS ................................................. 12
INFINITIVE ............................................ 12
IMPERATIVE .......................................... 15
SUBJUNCTIVE ......................................... I7
INDICATIVE ........................................... I7
Active .................................................. 17
Passive ................................................. 18
Present ................................................. 18
Past (Imperfect) ......................................... 20
Perfect.................................................. 21
Pluperfect......................................•........ 22
Future.................................................. 23
Future Perfect ........................................... 26
Conditional ............................................. 26
Conditional Perfect....................................... 27
The Continuous Aspect ................................... 27
SEQUENCE OF TENSES ................................ 28
MODAL AUXILIARIES.................................. 29
Modal auxiliacies without a main verb ...................... 32
TRANSITIVE AND INTRANSITIVE VERBS ............. 33
Conjugation of some intransitive and transitive verbs......... 34
SEPARABLE AND INSEPARABLE COMPOUND VERBS
PRESENT PARTICIPLE................................. 37
VERBS ENDING IN -S .................................. 3S
CONJUGATIONS ....................................... 40
ARTICLES.............................................. 45
FORM ................................................. 45
Articles in relation to nouns ............................... 45
Articles in relation to adjectives ........................... 46
FUNCTION ............................................. 47
Simple/compound definite ................................. 47
Rules for use of the articles ............................... 50
NOUNS ................................................ 57
GENDER .............................................. 57
Masculine ............................................... 57
Feminine................................................ 58
Neuter.................................................. 58
DECLENSIONS ......................................... 59
Masculine nouns ......................................... 59
Feminine nouns .......................................... 61
Neuter nouns ............................................ 62
MORE ABOUT SINGULAR AND PLURAL .............. 64
DEFINITE OR INDEFINITE FORM ..................... 64
CASE .................................................. 65
Nominative.............................................. 65
Genitive ................................................ 65
Dative .................................................. 65
COMPOUND NOUNS ................................... 67
Noun + Noun ........................................... 67
Adjective + Noun ....................................... 68
Verb + Noun ........................................... 69
Preposition + Noun ...................................... 69
Adverb + Noun ......................................... 69
ADJECTIVES ........................................... 70
DECLENSIONS ......................................... 70
Regular declension ....................................... 70
Irregular forms .......................................... 71
«Liten» ............................................... 75
«Annen» and «egen» ................................... 75
«Mange» and «mye».................................... 77
The indefinite form of the adjective ........................ 77
The definite form of the adjective .......................... 78
Successive adjectives ..................................... 79
The past participle used as an adjective ..................... 79
Other adjectives ending in -et ............................. 80
Comparison of adjectives ................................. 80
Concord ................................................ 84
Simple/compound definite ................................. 47
Rules for use of the articles ............................... 50
NOUNS ................................................ 57
GENDER .............................................. 57
Masculine ............................................... 57
Feminine................................................ 58
Neuter.................................................. 58
DECLENSIONS ......................................... 59
Masculine nouns ......................................... 59
Feminine nouns .......................................... 61
Neuter nouns ............................................ 62
MORE ABOUT SINGULAR AND PLURAL .............. 64
DEFINITE OR INDEFINITE FORM ..................... 64
CASE .................................................. 65
Nominative.............................................. 65
Genitive ................................................ 65
Dative .................................................. 65
COMPOUND NOUNS ................................... 67
Noun + Noun ........................................... 67
Adjective + Noun ....................................... 68
Verb + Noun ........................................... 69
Preposition + Noun ...................................... 69
Adverb + Noun ......................................... 69
ADJECTIVES ........................................... 70
DECLENSIONS ......................................... 70
Regular declension ....................................... 70
Irregular forms .......................................... 71
«Liten» ............................................... 75
«Annen» and «egen» ................................... 75
«Mange» and «mye».................................... 77
The indefinite form of the adjective ........................ 77
The definite form of the adjective .......................... 78
Successive adjectives ..................................... 79
The past participle used as an adjective ..................... 79
Other adjectives ending in -et ............................. 80
Comparison of adjectives ................................. 80
Concord ................................................ 84
ADVERBS .............................................. 8"
FORMS ................................................ 87
Comparison of adverbs ................................... 88
ADVERBS OF DEGREE ................................ 90
«Valdig» - «mye» - «cnda» - «aller» ..................... 90
ADVERBS OF PLACE .................................. 90
Stative and dynamic pairs................................ 91
Pairs with the same meanings............................ 91
ADVERBS OF MANNER ............................... 92
«Slik/sänn» - «slikt/sänt» ................................ 92
«Hvordan» ............................................ 92
ADVERBS OF MODIFICATION ......................... 92
«Da», «nok», «jo», «vel», «na», «sikkert» ................. 93
«Heller» .............................................. 94
ADVERBS OF TIME .................................... 95
«Ennä» - «enda»....................................... 95
«Da» - «sa» ........................................... 95
«Noen gang» - «Noen ganger»........................... 96
«Sjelden» - «sjeldent» .................................. 97
«F0rst» ............................................... 97
ADVERBIAL PHRASES OF TIME....................... 97
«I gär» - «i dag» - «i morgen» ........................... 97
«Om sommercn/vintcren» ............................... 98
«Om dagen/natten» .................................... 99
«I är» - «i äret»........................................ 99
Duration of time ....................................... 99
Holidays .............................................. 100
«How long» ........................................... 101
During................................................ 101
PRONOUNS............................................. 102
PERSONAL PRONOUNS................................ 104
Subject form ............................................ 104
Subject or object form .................................... 104
Indefinite use - «du», «de» ................................ 104
Neutral forms - «den», «det» .............................. 105
Repetition of subject form ................................ 105
Object form in exclamations............................... 105
REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS ............................... 105
In reflexive verbs ........................................ 105
Comparison with object form of personal pronouns .......... 106
FORMS ................................................ 87
Comparison of adverbs ................................... 88
ADVERBS OF DEGREE ................................ 90
«Valdig» - «mye» - «cnda» - «aller» ..................... 90
ADVERBS OF PLACE .................................. 90
Stative and dynamic pairs................................ 91
Pairs with the same meanings............................ 91
ADVERBS OF MANNER ............................... 92
«Slik/sänn» - «slikt/sänt» ................................ 92
«Hvordan» ............................................ 92
ADVERBS OF MODIFICATION ......................... 92
«Da», «nok», «jo», «vel», «na», «sikkert» ................. 93
«Heller» .............................................. 94
ADVERBS OF TIME .................................... 95
«Ennä» - «enda»....................................... 95
«Da» - «sa» ........................................... 95
«Noen gang» - «Noen ganger»........................... 96
«Sjelden» - «sjeldent» .................................. 97
«F0rst» ............................................... 97
ADVERBIAL PHRASES OF TIME....................... 97
«I gär» - «i dag» - «i morgen» ........................... 97
«Om sommercn/vintcren» ............................... 98
«Om dagen/natten» .................................... 99
«I är» - «i äret»........................................ 99
Duration of time ....................................... 99
Holidays .............................................. 100
«How long» ........................................... 101
During................................................ 101
PRONOUNS............................................. 102
PERSONAL PRONOUNS................................ 104
Subject form ............................................ 104
Subject or object form .................................... 104
Indefinite use - «du», «de» ................................ 104
Neutral forms - «den», «det» .............................. 105
Repetition of subject form ................................ 105
Object form in exclamations............................... 105
REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS ............................... 105
In reflexive verbs ........................................ 105
Comparison with object form of personal pronouns .......... 106
Reflexive/non-reflexive verbs ..............................106
Infinitives after reflexive pronouns .........................107
POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS............................... 107
Position of possessives .................................... 108
Genitive ................................................ 109
Reflexive possessive pronouns .............................109
DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS ........................ 112
Form ................................................... 112
Obligatory neuter singular form............................ 113
Definite article or demonstrative pronoun? ..................113
Compound/Simple definite ................................114
Special note on demonstrative pronouns ....................114
Other demonstrative pronouns............................. 115
«Slik» - «slikt» - «slike» ................................ 115
«Samme» ............................................. 115
«Sclv/sj0l(v)» .......................................... 115
«Begge» .............................................. 116
INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS ......................... 117
«Hvem» .............................................. 118
«Hva» ................................................118
«Hvilkcn» - «hvilket» - «hvilke» .........................118
«Hva for en/et/noe/noen» ...............................118
RELATIVE PRONOUNS ................................ 120
«Som» ................................................120
As subject in relative clauses .............................. 121
Special uses of «som»..................................... 122
Literary forms ........................................... 123
Cleft sentences ..........................................123
«Som» in relation to time and place ........................124
RECIPROCAL PRONOUNS ............................. 125
Each other .............................................. 125
INDEFINITE PRONOUNS............................... 125
One .................................................... 125
Assertive pronouns - noen/noe ............................126
annen/annet/andre .................... 127
mange/myc .......................... 127
Negative pronouns - no one/nothing .......................127
Universal pronouns - all/evcryone/everything................ 129
each/every ........................... 131
Impersonal pronoun ...................................... 132
Infinitives after reflexive pronouns .........................107
POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS............................... 107
Position of possessives .................................... 108
Genitive ................................................ 109
Reflexive possessive pronouns .............................109
DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS ........................ 112
Form ................................................... 112
Obligatory neuter singular form............................ 113
Definite article or demonstrative pronoun? ..................113
Compound/Simple definite ................................114
Special note on demonstrative pronouns ....................114
Other demonstrative pronouns............................. 115
«Slik» - «slikt» - «slike» ................................ 115
«Samme» ............................................. 115
«Sclv/sj0l(v)» .......................................... 115
«Begge» .............................................. 116
INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS ......................... 117
«Hvem» .............................................. 118
«Hva» ................................................118
«Hvilkcn» - «hvilket» - «hvilke» .........................118
«Hva for en/et/noe/noen» ...............................118
RELATIVE PRONOUNS ................................ 120
«Som» ................................................120
As subject in relative clauses .............................. 121
Special uses of «som»..................................... 122
Literary forms ........................................... 123
Cleft sentences ..........................................123
«Som» in relation to time and place ........................124
RECIPROCAL PRONOUNS ............................. 125
Each other .............................................. 125
INDEFINITE PRONOUNS............................... 125
One .................................................... 125
Assertive pronouns - noen/noe ............................126
annen/annet/andre .................... 127
mange/myc .......................... 127
Negative pronouns - no one/nothing .......................127
Universal pronouns - all/evcryone/everything................ 129
each/every ........................... 131
Impersonal pronoun ...................................... 132
CONJUNCTIONS ........................................ 135
COORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS .....................135
SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS .................... 135
<«Om» ................................................ 137
Conjunctions of time ..................................... 138
«Da» - «nar» .......................................... 138
«Etter at» - «etter» - «etterpa» .......................... 139
«F0r» - «foran» - «tidligere» ............................ 139
Conjunctions of cause .................................... 140
«Fordi» - «for» ........................................ 149
«Fordi» - «derfor» ..................................... 140
Conjunctions of condition ................................. 143
«Uten at» - «uten a» ................................... 142
Conjunctions of concession ................................ 143
Conjunctions of purpose .................................. 143
Conjunctions of result .................................... 144
«Sa» .................................................. 144
Conjunctions of comparison ............................... 145
INTERJECTIONS ....................................... 146
NUMERALS ............................................ 147
CARDINALS/ORDINALS ............................... 147
Notes on «en/en/et/ett» ................................... 148
Second ................................................. 148
Alternative forms ........................................ 149
Dates and age ........................................... 149
Fractions ................................................ 150
The clock ............................................... 151
Money ..................................................
Some idioms ............................................ 155
Numerals written as words or figures .......................
PREPOSITIONS ......................................... 156
Place ................................................... 156
Time ................................................... I59
Purpose ................................................. l59
Means .................................................. 159
Attribute................................................ I59
Genitive ................................................ 160
COORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS .....................135
SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS .................... 135
<
Conjunctions of time ..................................... 138
«Da» - «nar» .......................................... 138
«Etter at» - «etter» - «etterpa» .......................... 139
«F0r» - «foran» - «tidligere» ............................ 139
Conjunctions of cause .................................... 140
«Fordi» - «for» ........................................ 149
«Fordi» - «derfor» ..................................... 140
Conjunctions of condition ................................. 143
«Uten at» - «uten a» ................................... 142
Conjunctions of concession ................................ 143
Conjunctions of purpose .................................. 143
Conjunctions of result .................................... 144
«Sa» .................................................. 144
Conjunctions of comparison ............................... 145
INTERJECTIONS ....................................... 146
NUMERALS ............................................ 147
CARDINALS/ORDINALS ............................... 147
Notes on «en/en/et/ett» ................................... 148
Second ................................................. 148
Alternative forms ........................................ 149
Dates and age ........................................... 149
Fractions ................................................ 150
The clock ............................................... 151
Money ..................................................
Some idioms ............................................ 155
Numerals written as words or figures .......................
PREPOSITIONS ......................................... 156
Place ................................................... 156
Time ................................................... I59
Purpose ................................................. l59
Means .................................................. 159
Attribute................................................ I59
Genitive ................................................ 160
Passive ................................................. 160
Prepositional phrases which
replace genitives ......................................... 160
Prepositional phrases which
replace compound nouns.................................. 161
Idiomatic prepositional phrases ............................ 162
II Sentence elements................................. 180
SUBJECT .............................................. 180
«Det» as subject ......................................... 180
VERB PHRASE ........................................ 181
COMPLEMENT......................................... 182
OBJECT................................................ 183
INDIRECT OBJECT .................................... 184
ADVERBIAL ........................................... 185
III Sentence structure ................................ 186
MAIN CLAUSES ....................................... 186
SUBORDINATE CLAUSES ............................. 186
IV Word order ....................................... 188
MAIN CLAUSES ....................................... 188
Position of the subject .................................... 188
Position of the verb phrase ................................ 188
Position of the adverbial .................................. 190
Position of the direct and indirect object .................... 192
Position of the reflexive pronoun .......................... 192
SUBORDINATE CLAUSES ............................. 193
SUBORDINATE CLAUSE RELATIVE TO MAIN CLAUSE 194
Subordinate clause first ................................... 194
Main clause first ......................................... 194
RULES FOR THE USE OF COMMAS.................... 195
Index.................................................. 197
Prepositional phrases which
replace genitives ......................................... 160
Prepositional phrases which
replace compound nouns.................................. 161
Idiomatic prepositional phrases ............................ 162
II Sentence elements................................. 180
SUBJECT .............................................. 180
«Det» as subject ......................................... 180
VERB PHRASE ........................................ 181
COMPLEMENT......................................... 182
OBJECT................................................ 183
INDIRECT OBJECT .................................... 184
ADVERBIAL ........................................... 185
III Sentence structure ................................ 186
MAIN CLAUSES ....................................... 186
SUBORDINATE CLAUSES ............................. 186
IV Word order ....................................... 188
MAIN CLAUSES ....................................... 188
Position of the subject .................................... 188
Position of the verb phrase ................................ 188
Position of the adverbial .................................. 190
Position of the direct and indirect object .................... 192
Position of the reflexive pronoun .......................... 192
SUBORDINATE CLAUSES ............................. 193
SUBORDINATE CLAUSE RELATIVE TO MAIN CLAUSE 194
Subordinate clause first ................................... 194
Main clause first ......................................... 194
RULES FOR THE USE OF COMMAS.................... 195
Index.................................................. 197
Contents
ix
Preface x
1 Introduction: Shakespeare’s “Perfectly
Wild” Sonnets 1
2 Identity 13
3 Beauty 35
4 Love 58
5 Numbers 74
6 Time 89
Appendix: The Matter of the Sonnets 102
Notes 152
Works Cited 154
Index 157
I not been able to share ideas with (and to borrow from) many col-
leagues and past editors. Several recent editors of the poems have
been exceptionally kind in offering advice and additional assis-
tance. John Kerrigan has been particularly helpful and encourag-
ing, especially since his edition of the Sonnets is such an impossibly
fine example to follow. His careful reading of the typescript saved
me from many errors. Katherine Duncan-Jones has offered many
wise words, in print and in person, without which this edition
would be much poorer than it is. A helpful conversation with Helen
Vendler on punctuation has also left its mark on many lines of the
Sonnets, and John Roe has offered many helpful comments over
several years. Hyder Rollins’s monumental Variorum editions have
been daily and invaluable companions.
CONTENTS
PART 1:
List of Illustrations ix
Introduction 1
Shakespeare the Poet 1
Venus and Adonis 6
Publication and Date of Composition 6
Dedication 10
Literary Milieu 15
Lucrece 40
Publication and Date of Composition 40
The Argument, Sources, and Politics 45
Reading (in) Lucrece 55
Rape and Consent 66
The Passionate Pilgrim 74
‘Let the bird of loudest lay’ 82
Shakespeare’s Sonnets 91
Publication and Circulation 91
Dedication 98
Date and Sequence 103
Sources 111
Reading the Sonnets 118
A Lover’s Complaint 138
Date and Attribution 138
The Poem and its Context 140
Poems Attributed to Shakespeare in the Seventeenth Century 146
‘Shall I die?’ 148
A Funeral Elegy 152
Editorial Procedures 159
Abbreviations and References 160
VENUS AND ADONIS 171
LUCRECE 237
THE PASSIONATE PILGRIM 339
List of Illustrations ix
Introduction 1
Shakespeare the Poet 1
Venus and Adonis 6
Publication and Date of Composition 6
Dedication 10
Literary Milieu 15
Lucrece 40
Publication and Date of Composition 40
The Argument, Sources, and Politics 45
Reading (in) Lucrece 55
Rape and Consent 66
The Passionate Pilgrim 74
‘Let the bird of loudest lay’ 82
Shakespeare’s Sonnets 91
Publication and Circulation 91
Dedication 98
Date and Sequence 103
Sources 111
Reading the Sonnets 118
A Lover’s Complaint 138
Date and Attribution 138
The Poem and its Context 140
Poems Attributed to Shakespeare in the Seventeenth Century 146
‘Shall I die?’ 148
A Funeral Elegy 152
Editorial Procedures 159
Abbreviations and References 160
VENUS AND ADONIS 171
LUCRECE 237
THE PASSIONATE PILGRIM 339
‘LET THE BIRD OF LOUDEST LAY’ 371
PART2:
SHAKESPEARE’S SONNETS 379
A LOVER’S COMPLAINT 693
appendix 719
Poems Attributed to Shakespeare in the
Seventeenth Century 719
Index 729
Index of First Lines 748
SHAKESPEARE’S SONNETS 379
A LOVER’S COMPLAINT 693
appendix 719
Poems Attributed to Shakespeare in the
Seventeenth Century 719
Index 729
Index of First Lines 748
PART 1
PART 2
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