^^^^^^^^^^
HENRY FIELDING:  THE AUTHOR AND HIS TIMES 

  The outspoken eighteenth-century man of letters, Samuel
Johnson, wrote to a woman who had read the novel Tom Jones: 

  I am shocked to hear you quote from so vicious a book.  I am
sorry to hear you have read it:  a confession which no modest
lady should ever make.  I scarcely know a more corrupt work. 

  That's an unusual judgment about a landmark book in the
history of world literature, but it's a sample of the kind of
passionate response--both favorable and unfavorable--Tom Jones
has inspired since it was published.  Its author, Henry
Fielding, was born on April 22, 1707, in Somerset, in southwest
England, the area where his hero is born and raised.  Unlike
Tom, Fielding had no doubts about his aristocratic lineage.  His
father was a lieutenant general who had fought against the
forces of the great French king, Louis XIV.  His mother was the
granddaughter of Sir Henry Gold, a baron of the exchequer. 

  But if the Fieldings' social position was secure, their
financial situation was shaky.  Like most aristocrats, the young
Fielding grew to have expensive tastes.  Unlike many, he had no
way of affording them.  For much of his life, he would be like
Tom Jones, frequently standing in some lavish drawing room
talking to nobility, while wondering how he would pay his own
rent.  First educated by tutors, he was then sent to Eton, the
finest English boarding school.  But where other young men of
his background and intelligence would have continued on to
Cambridge or Oxford University, he didn't, probably because his
family could not afford the tuition.  Later, he broke off his
legal studies at the University of Leyden, in Holland, for the
same reason.  He made the most of the education he did receive,
though, picking up the dazzling familiarity with classical
authors that he displays so artfully in his writing. 

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Tags: novel, restoration, study guide

Volpone, a Venetian nobleman, has no relative to make his heir; he must name someone his beneficiary. Several rivals try to attain his favor by bringing the sick Volpone gifts that they hope will be returned tenfold. Mosca, a clever parasite to Volpone, encourages the three major gulls to give until it hurts. These birds of prey are Voltore, a lawyer; Corbaccio, an old miser about to die himself; and Corvino, a rich merchant and husband to Celia, a beautiful lady of Venice. Also naively competing for Volpone's wealth is Lady Would-be, the affected wife of an English knight, Sir Politic Would-be. After each gull is fleeced before our eyes, Mosca encourages Volpone to think of seeking a greater treasure than gold: the wife of Corvino. After a sensuous description by Mosca, Volpone resolves to see this paragon of beauty.

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Tags: comedy, play, restoration, study guide

 

The Duchess of Malfi takes place in Italy, mostly at the Duchess’s palace in Malfi, in the sixteenth century. The Duchess is a young widow whose two brothers, Ferdinand and the Cardinal, are visiting her from Rome at the play’s start. Antonio, the manager of her household, has just returned from France. Before leaving the Duchess, Ferdinand engages Bosola, previously used by the Cardinal as a hit man, to ostensibly manage the Duchess’s horses, but in reality to spy on her for the brothers so they can be sure she remains chaste and does not remarry.

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Tags: play, restoration, study guide

 

Spanish is one of the great European languages, rich in heritage from its more
than nine centuries of existence. This is the language that comes from the
region of Spain that English-speakers call Castile. As Christopher Columbus
and other Spanish explorers came to the New World, Spanish became the lan-
guage of all the peoples from Florida to Tierra del Fuego (with the exception
of Brazil, where Portuguese is spoken). When you go to places like Argentina,
Bolivia, Chile, Uruguay, Paraguay, Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Venezuela, Mexico,
Guatemala, Puerto Rico, Cuba, Costa Rica, Panama, Honduras, or Nicaragua,
you speak in or are spoken to in Spanish. If you visit cities like Santiago de
Chile, Montevideo, Asuncion, Buenos Aires, Lima, Caracas, Bogota, Mexico
City, Quito, San Juan, and many, many others, the people predominantly speak
Spanish. And when you speak their language or even attempt to communicate
with them in their native tongue, you add a richer dimension to your experi-
ence. Some folks say that language can be a barrier. And we believe that by
removing this barrier, you open a world of possibilities.
So you have several good reasons to embrace this beautiful language. You
may want to understand the culture and the people. You may also want your
Spanish-speaking friends and neighbors at home to understand you, in their
own language. So even if your Spanish isn’t perfect, you’ll be appreciated and
encouraged in your attempts to immerse yourself in the Spanish-speaking
world.

Contents at a Glance
Introduction ................................................................ 1
Part I: Getting Started ................................................. 7
Chapter 1: Spanish in a Nutshell ...................................................................................... 9
Chapter 2: Warming Up with Spanish Grammar Basics .............................................. 21
Chapter 3: Getting Started with Basic Expressions ..................................................... 41
Chapter 4: Getting Your Numbers, Times, and Measurements Straight .................. 65
Chapter 5: Speaking Spanish at Home........................................................................... 85
Part II: Spanish in Action ......................................... 111
Chapter 6: Getting to Know You: Making Small Talk ................................................. 113
Chapter 7: Asking for Directions .................................................................................. 127
Chapter 8: Dining Out and Going to the Market......................................................... 141
Chapter 9: Shopping Made Easy .................................................................................. 163
Chapter 10: Going Out on the Town ............................................................................ 185
Chapter 11: Taking Care of Business and Telecommunications.............................. 199
Chapter 12: Recreation and the Great Outdoors ....................................................... 219
Part III: Spanish on the Go ....................................... 237
Chapter 13: Planning a Trip .......................................................................................... 239
Chapter 14: Dealing with Money in a Foreign Land ................................................... 249
Chapter 15: Getting Around: Planes, Trains, Taxis, and More ................................. 261
Chapter 16: Finding a Place to Stay ............................................................................. 283
Chapter 17: Handling Emergencies .............................................................................. 295
Part IV: The Part of Tens .......................................... 315
Chapter 18: Ten Ways to Pick Up Spanish Quickly ................................................... 317
Chapter 19: Ten Things Never to Say in Spanish ....................................................... 321
Chapter 20: Ten or So Favorite Spanish Expressions ............................................... 325
Chapter 21: Ten Phrases That Make You Sound Fluent in Spanish ........................ 329

Part V: Appendixes .................................................. 335
Appendix A: Mini-Dictionary ........................................................................................ 337
Appendix B: Verb Tables .............................................................................................. 365
Appendix C: On the CD.................................................................................................. 383
Appendix D: Answer Keys ............................................................................................. 385
Index ...................................................................... 391

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Tags: for dummies, spanish

 

I don’t believe in God, but I miss Him. That’s what I say when the question is
put.  I asked  my  brother,  who  has  taught  philosophy  at  Oxford,  Geneva,  and  the
Sorbonne, what he thought of such a statement, without revealing that it was my own.
He replied with a single word: “ Soppy.”
The person to begin with is my maternal grandmother, Nellie Louisa Scoltock,
née Machin. She was a teacher in Shropshire until she married my grandfather, Bert
Scoltock. Not Bertram, not Albert, just Bert: so christened, so called, so cremated. He
was a headmaster with a certain mechanical  dash to him:  a motorcycle-and-sidecar
man,  then owner of a Lanchester,  then,  in retirement,  driver of a rather pompously
sporty Triumph Roadster,  with a three-person bench seat  in front,  and two bucket
seats when the top was down. By the time I knew them, my grandparents had come
south  to  be near  their  only  child.  Grandma went  to  the Women’s  Institute;  she
pickled and bottled;  she plucked and roasted the chickens  and geese that  Grandpa
raised. She was petite, outwardly unopinionated, and had the thickened knuckles of
old age; she needed soap to get her wedding ring off. Their wardrobe was full of home-
knitted cardigans, Grandpa’s tending to feature more masculine cable stitch. They had
regular appointments  with the chiropodist,  and were of that  generation advised by
dentists to have all their teeth out in one go. This was a normal rite of passage then:
from being rickety-gnashered to fully porcelained in one leap, to all that buccal sliding
and clacking, to social embarrassment and the foaming glass on the bedside table.

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Tags: literature, no-fiction, prose

Whether you are too busy to take a class or merely want to supplement your language learning
experience with additional materials, The Complete Idiot’s Guide to Learning Italian, Second Edition,
was written specifically for the independent study of Italian.
Any idiot can speak Italian, and lots of them do. The word “idiot” comes from the Greek root
idios and means “of a particular person, private, own.” In Latin, an idiota simply refers to a pri-
vate person. You see this root in the words “idiom” and “idiosyncrasy.”
Beware of the idiots! Lame and suffering from a speech impediment, Claudius (10 B.C.–54 A.D.)
is remembered as a scholar and a competent administrator during the time he reigned. Against
all odds, this “idiot” rose up to become Roman Emperor, making a fool of everyone.
The fact is, you’re not an idiot, or you wouldn’t be reading this book.

Contents at a Glance
Part 1    The Basics 1
1  Why You Should Study Italian 3
Imagine the reality of speaking Italian and see all the reasons.
2  Immerse Yourself 11
Learn about dialect, the history of Italian, and using your dic-
tionary. In addition, there’s a quick grammar refresher to get
your language studies started on the right foot.
3  Sound Like an Italian 25
Learn the basic rules of Italian pronunciation.
4  You Know More Than You Think 39
Tie English and Italian together using cognates.
5  Expressively Yours 53
In this chapter you’ll learn the fundamentals: how to say hello
and good-bye, your days of the week, and idiomatic expressions.
6  Almost Everything You Wanted to Know About Sex 69
In Italian all nouns are assigned a gender—learn what to do
about it.
7  What’s the Subject? 85
Study the different ways of expressing “you” in Italian. Learn
how to determine the subject in a sentence.
Part 2    You’re Off and Running 91
8  An Action-Packed Adventure 93
Learn about the different verb families and regular rules of con-
jugation.
9  Being There 111
See all the different ways of using “to be” with the verbs essere
and stare, and learn how to construct several idiomatic expres-
sions using the verb avere (to have).
10  Tell Me About Your Childhood 129
Learn how to express possession using adjectives and the prepo-
sition di, as well as how to describe things with adverbs.
11  Finally, You’re at the Airport 149
Now that you’ve landed, you’ll be given helpful vocabulary to
enable you to get around. Learn about prepositions and the im-
perative verb tense.
12  Moving Around 165
Drive away with the terms you need to make your journey
safe. Study your numbers to log those kilometers and talk about
time. Also find out how to use the verb fare (to do/to make).
13  Hallelujah, You’ve Made It to l’Hotel 187
Get comfortable inside your room using the practical vocabulary
lists. Express your desires with volere (to want), your potential
with potere (to be able to), and what you’ve got to do with
dovere (to have to).
14  Rain or Shine 205
Talk about the weather, make a date, and discuss your horo-
scope.
Part 3    Fun and Games 221
15  I Can’t Believe My Eyes! 223
See the sights and study the verbs you need to get around and
make suggestions, as well as how to use the present progressive
tense.
16  Shop ’Til You Drop 241
Learn everything you wanted to know about objects and object
pronouns while perusing Italy’s wonderful shops.
17  Bread, Wine, and Chocolate 261
Visit the market and sample the many culinary delights while
improving your linguistic abilities. Express your pleasure with
the verb piacere.
18  Shall We Dine? 281
Chew on the terms and learn how to read an Italian menu and
order special meals. See how reflexive verbs work.
19  Having Fun Italian Style 303
You can sing, dance, and paint the town red with these
terms. Learn how to talk about what you had been doing using
the passato prossimo.
Part 4    Getting Down to Business 323
20  You’re Not Having Un Buon Giorno 325
Cope with life’s little nuisances, get your hair done, and learn
how to make comparisons.
21  Is There a Doctor in the House? 341
Tell the doctor where it hurts with these terms. Learn how to
talk about what used to be with the imperfect tense.
22  Can You Read Me? 355
Make a telephone call, send a package, and write a letter. See
how to use the future tense to talk about what will be.
23  Home Sweet Home 369
In the market to own a home? Want to rent a villa? Talk about
the conditional and learn how to express what you would like.
24  Money Matters 381
Learn the international language of money with these helpful
banking terms. Also learn the subjunctive and past absolute.
Appendixes
A  Answer Key 395
B  Glossary 411
C  Map of Italy 441
D  An Idiot’s Guide to Additional Resources 443
Index 445

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Tags: for dummies, italian, linguistics

 

The Phonology of Italian offers an overview of the main characteristics of Italian
sound patterns under consideration of regional variation and an analysis couched in
the framework of Optimality Theory.
With regard to this goal immediately two questions arise. 1. What is Italian? 2. Why
is there a need for such a book? The first question might be raised by readers who
are aware of the complex linguistic situation of Italy and the Italian language—or
languages, one might say. Section 1.1 will be dedicated to a clarification of this situation.
The second question could be expected from anyone familiar with the literature on
Italian phonology. Italian is by no means an understudied language. It has received
a lot of attention in the linguistic literature, both in the descriptive literature and in
the theoretically oriented literature that seeks to further our understanding not only of
Italian as a linguistic system but of language in general. Thus, one might wonder what
the intended contribution of this book is supposed to be. I will give a more detailed
answer to this in section 1.2. Section 1.3 will give an overview of the book, while
section 1.4 provides guidance on orthography.

C O N T E N T S
Acknowledgements viii
Notation Conventions ix
The International Phonetic Alphabet x
Abbreviations xi
1  INTRODUCTION 1
1.1   Approaching Italian 1
1.2   A rationale 3
1.3   An overview of this book 5
1.4   Orthography 8
2  THEORETICAL BACKGROUND 11
2.1   Optimality Theory 11
2.2   The parallel structures model of segmental representations 17
3  A VERY BRIEF HISTORY OF ITALIAN PHONOLOGY 22
3.1   Latin as a starting point 23
3.2   Major developments on the way from Latin to Italian 25
3.2.1   Changes in the consonantal system 26
3.2.2   Changes in the vowel system 30
3.2.3   Changes in prosodic organization 33
3.3   Explaining historical change 35
3.3.1   Neogrammarian sound change 35
3.3.2   Contrast innovation and fading-out of phonological processes 36
3.3.3   Classical lexical diffusion 39
3.3.4   Rule inversion 42
3.3.5   Summary 42
4  SEGMENTAL PHONOLOGY 44
4.1   The sound inventory 45
4.1.1   Consonants 45
4.1.2   Vowels 50
4.2   Segmental alternations 56
4.2.1   Palatalization 56
4.2.1.1  Alveolar affrication and velar palatalization 57
4.2.1.2   Place features 68
4.2.1.3   Constraint-based analysis of palatalization 73
4.2.2   The status of glides: vowel-glide alternations 84
4.2.2.1   Separating high vowels and glides 85
4.2.2.2  Analysis 91

4.2.3   Vowel neutralization 99
4.2.3.1   Overview 100
4.2.3.2   Representations and derivations of metaphony 104
4.2.3.3   Unstressed vowel reduction and metaphony in OT 111
4.2.3.4   Summary 123
4.3   A feature set for the Italian segment inventory 124
5  SYLLABLE STRUCTURE 127
5.1   Italian onset phonotactics 128
5.2   The rhyme 134
5.2.1   The size of the rhyme 135
5.2.2   The coda condition 137
5.3   Across syllable boundaries 140
5.4   An OT analysis 142
6  WORD STRESS 156
6.1   Overview 156
6.2   Default stress 160
6.2.1   Identifying the problem 160
6.2.2   Nonce-word test method 167
6.2.3   Results 169
6.2.4  Analysis of nonce-word stress patterns 177
6.2.4.1  All light syllables 179
6.2.4.2   Quantity 183
6.2.5   Comments and further refinement 185
6.3   Lexical stress 187
6.3.1   Conflicting stress marks 187
6.3.2   OT analysis of lexical stress 190
6.4   Secondary stress 194
6.5   The domain of stress 197
7  PROSODIC PHONOLOGY 203
7.1   The prosodic hierarchy 203
7.2   Intervocalic s-voicing 207
7.2.1   Overview 207
7.2.2   Formal analyses 211
7.3   Raddoppiamento sintattico 219
7.3.1   The different types of consonant doubling
and their previous analyses 219
7.3.2  An OT analysis of phonological consonant doubling 225
7.3.3   Summary 234
7.4   Vowel deletion 234
7.4.1   Deletion, syntactic structure, and speech rate 235
7.4.2  A unified analysis of deletion 243

7.5   Phrasal stress and focus: phonology and syntax in interaction 249
7.5.1   Overview 249
7.5.2   Phonological and syntactic phrasing 252
7.5.3   Phrasal stress 257
7.5.4   Phrasal stress, focus, and syntactic movement 260
7.6   Conclusions on prosodic phonology 263
References 265
Subject Index 279
Index of Names 285

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Tags: italian, linguistics, oxford, phonetics

The book walks you through your language in 23 easy steps. Almost automatically you will acquire a large working vocabulary that will suit your needs. As you work through the steps, use the sticky labels (included). At the back of the book, you will also find cut-out flash cards to make learning fun. When you have completed the book, cut out the menu at the back and take it along on your trip. Available in 11 languages.

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Tags: norsk, norwegian, translated

 

Jonathan Swift's masterpiece is the finest satire in the English language. Shipwrecked traveler Lemuel Gulliver finds himself washed ashore in Lilliput, a kingdom populated by tiny people. Fascinated by their exotic visitor, the Lilliputians enlist Gulliver's services in their bitter civil war. But Gulliver becomes the object of a court intrigue and has to make a hasty escape. On his next voyage, his ship is blown off course to Brobdingnag, whose giant inhabitants strike him as horrific and occasionally revolting. A third journey takes him to Laputa, a floating island occupied by pedantic scientists and philosophers. Finally, he encounters a society of rational horses, the Houyhnhnms, and witnesses the appalling behaviour of their servants the Yahoos, a group who are in many ways disturbingly similar to Man at his most bestial. Swift's brilliantly original story is a timeless portrait of the human condition in all its misery and majesty.

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Tags: BRITISH, english, literature, prose

 

The Rape of the Lock is a mock-heroic narrative poem written by Alexander Pope, first published anonymously in Lintot's Miscellany in May 1712 in two cantos (334 lines), but then revised, expanded and reissued under Pope's name on March 2, 1714, in a much-expanded 5-canto version (794 lines). The final form was available in 1717 with the addition of Clarissa's speech on good humour.
The poem satirizes a petty squabble by comparing it to the epic world of the gods. It was based on an incident recounted by Pope's friend, John Caryll. Arabella Fermor and her suitor, Lord Petre, were both from aristocratic recusant Catholic families at a period in England when under such laws as the Test Act, all denominations except Anglicanism suffered legal restrictions and penalties (for example Petre could not take up his place in the House of Lords as a Catholic). Petre, lusting after Arabella, had cut off a lock of her hair without permission, and the consequent argument had created a breach between the two families. Pope, also a Catholic, wrote the poem at the request of friends in an attempt to "comically merge the two." He utilized the character Belinda to represent Arabella and introduced an entire system of "sylphs," or guardian spirits of virgins, a parodized version of the gods and goddesses of conventional epic.

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Tags: english, literature, poetry

 

The Way of the World is a play written by British playwright William Congreve. It premiered in 1700 in the theatre in Lincoln's Inn Fields in London. It is widely regarded as being one of the best Restoration comedies written and is still performed sporadically to this day.

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Tags: comedy, literature, play, poetry

 

This grammar has been written specially for non-Norwegians. Our aim has been to give a simple, step-hy-step presentation of the grammatical rules and systems of Norwegian «bokmâl», one of the two official written variants of Norwegian. The many examples given throughout the book assist the reader in practical usages which have proved difficult for those learning the language. As the intention of this book is to give a practical guide to modern Norwegian as it is used in an everyday context, emphasis has been given to providing translations of the Norwegian examples which are as colloquial and idiomatic as possible. The British English variants used throughout in the translations may on occasion appear unfamiliar to speakers of. for example. American English, but this should not be an obstacle to a full understanding of the text.
Haslum, January 1986
Ase-Berit and Rolf Strandskogen Barbara White

Contents
Preface ................................................ 9
I Parts of speech ..................................... 11
VERBS ................................................. 12
INFINITIVE ............................................ 12
IMPERATIVE .......................................... 15
SUBJUNCTIVE ......................................... I7
INDICATIVE ........................................... I7
Active .................................................. 17
Passive   ................................................. 18
Present  ................................................. 18
Past (Imperfect)   ......................................... 20
Perfect.................................................. 21
Pluperfect......................................•........ 22
Future.................................................. 23
Future Perfect ........................................... 26
Conditional   ............................................. 26
Conditional Perfect....................................... 27
The Continuous Aspect ................................... 27
SEQUENCE OF TENSES ................................ 28
MODAL AUXILIARIES.................................. 29
Modal auxiliacies without a main verb ...................... 32
TRANSITIVE AND INTRANSITIVE VERBS  ............. 33
Conjugation of some intransitive and transitive verbs......... 34
SEPARABLE AND INSEPARABLE COMPOUND VERBS
PRESENT PARTICIPLE................................. 37
VERBS ENDING IN -S .................................. 3S
CONJUGATIONS ....................................... 40
ARTICLES.............................................. 45
FORM   ................................................. 45
Articles in relation to nouns ............................... 45
Articles in relation to adjectives  ........................... 46

FUNCTION ............................................. 47
Simple/compound definite ................................. 47
Rules for use of the articles ............................... 50
NOUNS ................................................ 57
GENDER   .............................................. 57
Masculine ............................................... 57
Feminine................................................ 58
Neuter.................................................. 58
DECLENSIONS ......................................... 59
Masculine nouns ......................................... 59
Feminine nouns .......................................... 61
Neuter nouns ............................................ 62
MORE ABOUT SINGULAR AND PLURAL .............. 64
DEFINITE OR INDEFINITE FORM   ..................... 64
CASE .................................................. 65
Nominative.............................................. 65
Genitive  ................................................ 65
Dative .................................................. 65
COMPOUND NOUNS ................................... 67
Noun + Noun ........................................... 67
Adjective + Noun  ....................................... 68
Verb + Noun  ........................................... 69
Preposition + Noun ...................................... 69
Adverb + Noun  ......................................... 69
ADJECTIVES ........................................... 70
DECLENSIONS ......................................... 70
Regular declension ....................................... 70
Irregular forms  .......................................... 71
«Liten» ............................................... 75
«Annen» and «egen» ................................... 75
«Mange» and «mye».................................... 77
The indefinite form of the adjective ........................ 77
The definite form of the adjective .......................... 78
Successive adjectives  ..................................... 79
The past participle used as an adjective ..................... 79
Other adjectives ending in -et  ............................. 80
Comparison of adjectives  ................................. 80
Concord  ................................................ 84

ADVERBS  .............................................. 8"
FORMS  ................................................ 87
Comparison of adverbs  ................................... 88
ADVERBS OF DEGREE ................................ 90
«Valdig» - «mye» - «cnda» - «aller»  ..................... 90
ADVERBS OF PLACE .................................. 90
Stative and dynamic pairs................................ 91
Pairs with the same meanings............................ 91
ADVERBS OF MANNER   ............................... 92
«Slik/sänn» - «slikt/sänt» ................................ 92
«Hvordan» ............................................ 92
ADVERBS OF MODIFICATION ......................... 92
«Da», «nok», «jo», «vel», «na», «sikkert» ................. 93
«Heller»  .............................................. 94
ADVERBS OF TIME .................................... 95
«Ennä» - «enda»....................................... 95
«Da» - «sa» ........................................... 95
«Noen gang» - «Noen ganger»........................... 96
«Sjelden» - «sjeldent» .................................. 97
«F0rst»  ............................................... 97
ADVERBIAL PHRASES OF TIME....................... 97
«I gär» - «i dag» - «i morgen» ........................... 97
«Om sommercn/vintcren» ............................... 98
«Om dagen/natten»   .................................... 99
«I är» - «i äret»........................................ 99
Duration of time ....................................... 99
Holidays .............................................. 100
«How long» ........................................... 101
During................................................ 101
PRONOUNS............................................. 102
PERSONAL PRONOUNS................................ 104
Subject form  ............................................ 104
Subject or object form .................................... 104
Indefinite use - «du», «de» ................................ 104
Neutral forms - «den», «det» .............................. 105
Repetition of subject form  ................................ 105
Object form in exclamations............................... 105
REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS ............................... 105
In reflexive verbs  ........................................ 105
Comparison with object form of personal pronouns  .......... 106

Reflexive/non-reflexive verbs ..............................106
Infinitives after reflexive pronouns .........................107
POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS............................... 107
Position of possessives .................................... 108
Genitive  ................................................ 109
Reflexive possessive pronouns .............................109
DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS ........................ 112
Form ................................................... 112
Obligatory neuter singular form............................ 113
Definite article or demonstrative pronoun? ..................113
Compound/Simple definite ................................114
Special note on demonstrative pronouns ....................114
Other demonstrative pronouns............................. 115
«Slik» - «slikt» - «slike» ................................ 115
«Samme»   ............................................. 115
«Sclv/sj0l(v)» .......................................... 115
«Begge»  .............................................. 116
INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS ......................... 117
«Hvem»   .............................................. 118
«Hva» ................................................118
«Hvilkcn» - «hvilket» - «hvilke» .........................118
«Hva for en/et/noe/noen»  ...............................118
RELATIVE PRONOUNS ................................ 120
«Som» ................................................120
As subject in relative clauses .............................. 121
Special uses of «som»..................................... 122
Literary forms ........................................... 123
Cleft sentences  ..........................................123
«Som» in relation to time and place ........................124
RECIPROCAL PRONOUNS ............................. 125
Each other .............................................. 125
INDEFINITE PRONOUNS............................... 125
One .................................................... 125
Assertive pronouns - noen/noe ............................126
annen/annet/andre .................... 127
mange/myc  .......................... 127
Negative pronouns - no one/nothing   .......................127
Universal pronouns - all/evcryone/everything................ 129
each/every ........................... 131
Impersonal pronoun ...................................... 132

CONJUNCTIONS ........................................ 135
COORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS .....................135
SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS .................... 135
<«Om»   ................................................ 137
Conjunctions of time ..................................... 138
«Da» - «nar» .......................................... 138
«Etter at» - «etter» - «etterpa» .......................... 139
«F0r» - «foran» - «tidligere» ............................ 139
Conjunctions of cause  .................................... 140
«Fordi» - «for» ........................................ 149
«Fordi» - «derfor»  ..................................... 140
Conjunctions of condition ................................. 143
«Uten at» - «uten a» ................................... 142
Conjunctions of concession ................................ 143
Conjunctions of purpose .................................. 143
Conjunctions of result  .................................... 144
«Sa» .................................................. 144
Conjunctions of comparison ............................... 145
INTERJECTIONS   ....................................... 146
NUMERALS   ............................................ 147
CARDINALS/ORDINALS ............................... 147
Notes on «en/en/et/ett»  ................................... 148
Second   ................................................. 148
Alternative forms ........................................ 149
Dates and age  ........................................... 149
Fractions ................................................ 150
The clock ............................................... 151
Money ..................................................
Some idioms   ............................................ 155
Numerals written as words or figures .......................
PREPOSITIONS ......................................... 156
Place ................................................... 156
Time  ................................................... I59
Purpose ................................................. l59
Means .................................................. 159
Attribute................................................ I59
Genitive  ................................................ 160

Passive   ................................................. 160
Prepositional phrases which
replace genitives ......................................... 160
Prepositional phrases which
replace compound nouns.................................. 161
Idiomatic prepositional phrases  ............................ 162
II Sentence elements................................. 180
SUBJECT  .............................................. 180
«Det» as subject ......................................... 180
VERB PHRASE   ........................................ 181
COMPLEMENT......................................... 182
OBJECT................................................ 183
INDIRECT OBJECT  .................................... 184
ADVERBIAL ........................................... 185
III Sentence structure ................................ 186
MAIN CLAUSES  ....................................... 186
SUBORDINATE CLAUSES   ............................. 186
IV Word order ....................................... 188
MAIN CLAUSES   ....................................... 188
Position of the subject .................................... 188
Position of the verb phrase ................................ 188
Position of the adverbial .................................. 190
Position of the direct and indirect object .................... 192
Position of the reflexive pronoun   .......................... 192
SUBORDINATE CLAUSES   ............................. 193
SUBORDINATE CLAUSE RELATIVE TO MAIN CLAUSE 194
Subordinate clause first ................................... 194
Main clause first ......................................... 194
RULES FOR THE USE OF COMMAS.................... 195
Index.................................................. 197

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Tags: grammar, norsk, norwegian, translated

 

Contents

ix

Preface x

1   Introduction: Shakespeare’s “Perfectly

Wild” Sonnets 1

2   Identity 13

3   Beauty 35

4   Love 58

5   Numbers 74

6   Time 89

Appendix: The Matter of the Sonnets 102

Notes 152

Works Cited 154

Index 157

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Tags: critics, essay, literature, shakespeare

T his has been a big labour, which would have been impossible had
I not been able to share ideas with (and to borrow from) many col-
leagues and past editors. Several recent editors of  the poems have
been  exceptionally  kind  in  offering  advice  and  additional  assis-
tance. John Kerrigan has been particularly helpful and encourag-
ing, especially since his edition of the Sonnets is such an impossibly
fine example to follow. His careful reading of  the typescript saved
me from many errors. Katherine Duncan-Jones has offered many
wise  words, in  print  and  in  person, without  which  this  edition
would be much poorer than it is. A helpful conversation with Helen
Vendler on punctuation has also left its mark on many lines of the
Sonnets, and  John  Roe  has  offered  many  helpful  comments  over
several years. Hyder Rollins’s monumental Variorum editions have
been daily and invaluable companions.

CONTENTS

PART 1:
List of Illustrations ix
Introduction 1
Shakespeare the Poet 1
Venus and Adonis 6
Publication and Date of Composition 6
Dedication 10
Literary Milieu 15
Lucrece 40
Publication and Date of Composition 40
The Argument, Sources, and Politics 45
Reading (in) Lucrece 55
Rape and Consent 66
The Passionate Pilgrim 74
‘Let the bird of loudest lay’ 82
Shakespeare’s Sonnets 91
Publication and Circulation 91
Dedication 98
Date and Sequence 103
Sources 111
Reading the Sonnets 118
A Lover’s Complaint 138
Date and Attribution 138
The Poem and its Context 140
Poems Attributed to Shakespeare in the Seventeenth Century 146
‘Shall I die?’ 148
A Funeral Elegy 152
Editorial Procedures 159
Abbreviations and References 160
VENUS AND ADONIS 171
LUCRECE 237
THE PASSIONATE PILGRIM 339

‘LET THE BIRD OF LOUDEST LAY’ 371

PART2:
SHAKESPEARE’S SONNETS 379
A LOVER’S COMPLAINT 693
appendix 719
Poems Attributed to Shakespeare in the
Seventeenth Century 719
Index 729
Index of First Lines 748

PART 1


PART 2

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Tags: BRITISH, english, literature, oxford, poetry, romance, shakespeare

The greatest of English dramatists except Shakespeare, the first literary dictator and poet-laureate, a writer of verse, prose, satire, and criticism who most potently of all the men of his time affected the subsequent course of English letters: such was Ben Jonson, and as such his strong personality assumes an interest to us almost unparalleled, at least in his age.
Ben Jonson came of the stock that was centuries after to give to the world Thomas Carlyle; for Jonson's grandfather was of Annandale, over the Solway, whence he migrated to England. Jonson's father lost his estate under Queen Mary, "having been cast into prison and forfeited." He entered the church, but died a month before his illustrious son was born, leaving his widow and child in poverty. Jonson's birthplace was Westminster, and the time of his birth early in 1573. He was thus nearly ten years Shakespeare's junior, and less well off, if a trifle better born. But Jonson did not profit even by this slight advantage. His mother married beneath her, a wright or bricklayer, and Jonson was for a time apprenticed to the trade.

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Tags: english, literature, play

Of John Webster's life almost nothing is known. The dates 1580-1625 given for his birth and death are conjectural inferences, about which the best that can be said is that no known facts contradict them.
The first notice of Webster so far discovered shows that he was collaborating in the production of plays for the theatrical manager, Henslowe, in 1602, and of such collaboration he seems to have done a considerable amount. Four plays exist which he wrote alone, "The White Devil," "The Duchess of Malfi," "The Devil's Law-Case," and "Appius and Virginia."
"The Duchess of Malfi" was published in 1623, but the date of writing may have been as early as 1611. It is based on a story in Painter's "Palace of Pleasure," translated from the Italian novelist, Bandello; and it is entirely possible that it has a foundation in fact. In any case, it portrays with a terrible vividness one side of the court life of the Italian Renaissance; and its picture of the fierce quest of pleasure, the recklessness of crime, and the worldliness of the great princes of the Church finds only too ready corroboration in the annals of the time.
Webster's tragedies come toward the close of the great series of tragedies of blood and revenge, in which "The Spanish Tragedy" and "Hamlet" are landmarks, but before decadence can fairly be said to have set in. He, indeed, loads his scene with horrors almost past the point which modern taste can bear; but the intensity of his dramatic situations, and his superb power of flashing in a single line a light into the recesses of the human heart at the crises of supreme emotion, redeems him from mere sensationalism, and places his best things in the first rank of dramatic writing.

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Tags: english, literature, play

I cannot omit giving the World an account, of the uncommon Villany of a Gentleman of a good Family in England practis’d upon his Sister, which was attested to me by one who liv’d in the Family, and from whom I had the whole Truth of the Story. I shall conceal the unhappy Gentleman’s own, under the borrow’d Names of Sir William Wilding, who succeeded his Father Sir Edward, in an Estate of near 4000l. a Year, inheriting all that belong’d to him, except his Virtues. ’Tis true, he was oblig’d to pay his only Sister a Portion of 6000l. which he might very easily have done out of his Patrimony in a little Time, the Estate being not in the least incumbred. But the Death of his good Father gave a loose to the Extravagancy of his Inclinations, which till then was hardly observable. The first Discovery he made of his Humour, was in the extraordinary rich Equipage he prepar’d for his Journey to London, which was much greater than his fair and plentiful Fortune cou’d maintain, nor were his Expences any way inferior to the Figure he made here in Town; insomuch, that in less than a Twelve-Month, he was forc’d to return to his Seat in the Country, to Mortgage a part of his Estate of a Thousand Pounds a Year, to satisfy the Debts he had already contracted in his profuse Treats, Gaming and Women, which in a few Weeks he effected, to the great Affliction of his Sister Philadelphia, a young Lady of excellent Beauty, Education, and Virtue; who, fore-seeing the utter Ruin of the Estate, 38 if not timely prevented, daily begg’d of him, with Prayers and Tears, that might have mov’d a Scythian or wild Arab, or indeed

 

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Tags: literature, prose, short story

The purpose of this book
English, like all languages, is full of problems for the foreign learner. Some of these points are easy to explain - for instance, the formation of questions, the difference between since and for, the meaning of after all. Other problems are more tricky, and cause difficulty even for advanced students and teachers. How exactly is the present perfect used? When do we use past tenses to be polite? What are the differences between at, on and in with expressions of place? We can say a chair teg - why not *a cat teg? When can we use the expression do sol When is the used with superlatives? Is unless the same as if not? What are the differences between come and go, between each and every, between big, large and great, between fairly, quite, rather and pretty* Is it correct to say There's three more bottles in the fridge? How do you actually say 3 x 4 = 12? And so on, and so on.

Language is in terms of grammar

Practical English Usage is a guide to problems of this kind. It deals with over 600 points which regularly cause difficulty to foreign students of English. It will be useful, for example, to a learner who is not sure how to use a particular structure, or who has made a mistake and wants to find out why it is wrong. It will also be helpful to a teacher who is looking for a clear explanation of a difficult language point. There is very full coverage of grammar, as well as explanations of a large number of common vocabulary problems. There are also some entries designed to clarify more general questions (e.g. formality, slang, the nature of standard English and dialects) which students and teachers may find themselves concerned with.

PART 1


PART 2

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Tags: advanced, grammar, oxford

Grammatical descriptions of English which are addressed to learners 

are often oversimplified and inaccurate This is the inevitable result of 

lack of time in the classroom and lack of space in course books and 

practice books Badly expressed and inaccurate rules, in turn, become 

enshrined in grammar books directed at teachers and students The 

misrepresentation of English grammar gives a false view of the 

language, perpetuates inaccurate 'rules', and results in errors in 

communication It is against this background that the Longman English 

Grammar has been written

The primary aim of this book is to present a manageable coverage of 

grammar at intermediate and advanced levels, which will serve two 

purposes

1  To present information which can be consulted for reference

2  To suggest the range of structures that a student would need to be 

familiar with receptively and (to a lesser extent) productively to be 

able to communicate effectively 

In other words, the book aims to be a true pedagogical grammar for 

everyone concerned with English as a foreign language It attempts to 

provide reasonable answers to reasonable questions about the 

workings of the language and to define what English as a Foreign 

Language is in terms of grammar

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Tags: advanced, grammar, longman

A fascinating history of the USA from the time of the Amerindians to the culturally diverse but united country of today.

CONTENTS

A  NEW  WORLD


1  The, first Americans
2  Explorers from  Europe
3  Virginian beginnings
4  Puritan New England
5  Colonial life in America
6  The roots of revolution
7  Fighting for independence


A  NEW  NATION

8   Forming the, new nation

9   Years of growth

10 West to the Pacific

11  North and South

12  The civil War

13  Reconsrruction

YEARS OF GROWTH
14 Miners, railroads and cattlemen 
15 Farming; the Great Plains 
16 The Amerindians' last stand 
17 Inventors and industries
18 The Golden Door 
19 Reformers and progressives SO
20 An American empire


Twentieth Century Americans
21 A war and a peace 
22 The Roaring Twenties 
23 Crash and depression 
24 Roosevelt's New Deal 
25 The Arsenal of Democracy 
26 Prosperity and problems 
27 Black Americans


Superpower
28 Cold War and Korea 
29 A balance of terror 
30 The Vietnam years 
31 America's back yard 
32 An end to Cold War? 
33 The American Century

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Tags: american, history, longman

Who is this book for?
This book is aimed at researchers in any discipline who wish to write a research
paper in English. If your first language is not English, you should find this book
particularly useful.




Who else will benefit from reading this book?
Proofreaders,  those  who  work  for  editing  services,  referees,  journal  editors  and
EFL, ESL and EAP trainers should also find this book useful. I hope to be able to
show you the reasons why the English of non-native speakers often does not com-
ply with the standards of international journals. Knowing these reasons should then
help you to give advice to authors on how to improve their manuscripts, and stu-
dents on how to improve their writing in general. It should also help you understand
the difficulties that non-natives have when writing in English.
Finally, if you are a tutor, supervisor or professor of any nationality, I hope that
you will use this book as a resource to help your students improve their scientific
writing skills. I imagine that you are generally able to identify the errors in writing
made by your students, but you may not have the time or knowledge to explain how
to rectify such mistakes.

READ THIS BOOK AT THE END OF THIS POST




Contents
The symbol # indicates that inexperienced writers should pay particular attention to 
this subsection.
Part I    Writing Skills
1    Planning and Preparation ........................................................................       3
1.1    Think about why you want to publish your research #....................       5
1.2    Give yourself enough time to plan and write your manuscript #.....       5
1.3    Choose an appropriate journal, preferably with a high 
impact factor ....................................................................................       5
1.4    Download the instructions for authors from your chosen 
journal AND from a high impact journal in the same field #..........       6
1.5    Read and analyze papers for your literature review, 
and note how they are structured .....................................................       7
1.6    Identify what the editor is looking for .............................................       8
1.7    Choose one paper as a model and note down useful phrases #........       9
1.8    Think about the order in which to write the various sections # .......       9
1.9    Create separate files for each section...............................................     10
1.10    Chat with non experts # ...................................................................     11
1.11    Give mini presentations to colleagues .............................................     11
1.12    Decide what your key findings are and whether 
you really have a contribution to make # .........................................     11
1.13    For each section, think about how you can highlight 
your key findings #...........................................................................     12
1.14    Always have the referees in mind # .................................................     13
1.15    Referees and English level...............................................................     14
1.16    How to keep the referees happy.......................................................     14
1.17    Write directly in English and find ways 
to improve your writing skills #.......................................................     15
1.18    Consult online resources #...............................................................     16
1.19    Summary ..........................................................................................     17
literaculitera.blogspot.comxiv Contents
2    Word Order ...............................................................................................     19
2.1    Basic word order in English #..........................................................     21
2.2    Compare word order in your language with word order 
in English .........................................................................................     21
2.3    Choose the most relevant subject and put it at the beginning 
of the sentence #...............................................................................     22
2.4    Choose the subject that leads to the most concise sentence.............     23
2.5    Don’t make the impersonal it the subject of the sentence................     23
2.6    Don’t use a pronoun (it, they) before you introduce 
the noun (i.e. the subject of the sentence) 
that the pronoun refers to .................................................................     23
2.7    Put the subject before the verb #......................................................     24
2.8    Keep the subject and verb as close as possible to each other #........     24
2.9    Avoid inserting parenthetical information between 
the subject and the verb #.................................................................     25
2.10    Don’t separate the verb from its direct object #...............................     26
2.11    Put the direct object before the indirect object # .............................     26
2.12    How to choose where to locate an adverb........................................     27
2.13    Put adjectives before the noun they describe, 
or use a relative clause # ..................................................................     29
2.14    Do not insert an adjective between two nouns 
or before the wrong noun #..............................................................     29
2.15    Avoid creating strings of nouns that describe other nouns # ...........     30
2.16    Ensure there is no ambiguity in the order of the words # ................     30
2.17    Summary ..........................................................................................     32
3    Breaking Up Long Sentences ...................................................................     33
3.1    Think above all about the reader #...................................................     35
3.2    The longer your sentence, the greater the chance it will be 
misunderstood # ...............................................................................     35
3.3    Short sentences are not a sign of inelegance and superficiality.........      36
3.4    Why and how long sentences are created # .....................................     37
3.5    and #.................................................................................................     38
3.6    as well as..........................................................................................     40
3.7    Other link words that introduce additional information: 
moreover, in addition, furthermore ..................................................     40
3.8    Link words that compare and contrast: 
whereas, on the other hand; although, however..............................     41
3.9    Link words that give explanations: because, since, as, in fact ...........      42
3.10    Link words that express consequences: owing to, 
due to, as a result of, consequently, thus etc. ...................................     42
3.11    which and relative clauses #.............................................................     43
3.12    - ing form .........................................................................................     45
3.13    in order to.........................................................................................     46
3.14    Excessive numbers of commas # .....................................................     47
3.15    Semicolons.......................................................................................     48
3.16    Semicolons in lists ...........................................................................     49
3.17    Phrases in parentheses......................................................................     50
3.18    Summary ..........................................................................................     51
4    Structuring Paragraphs and Sentences ..................................................     53
4.1    The key to good writing: always think about the reader #...............     55
4.2    General structure of a paragraph #...................................................     56
4.3    How to structure a paragraph: an example #....................................     57
4.4    First paragraph of a new section - begin with 
a mini summary plus an indication of the structure.........................     59
4.5    First paragraph of a new section - go directly to the point ..............     60
4.6    Deciding where to put new and old information 
within a paragraph #.........................................................................     61
4.7    Deciding where to put new and old information 
within a sentence #...........................................................................     63
4.8    Link each sentence by moving from general 
concepts to increasingly more specific concepts.............................     64
4.9    Present and explain ideas in the same (logical) sequence................     65
4.10    Don’t force the reader to have to change their perspective..............     67
4.11    Use a consistent numbering system to list phases, 
states, parts etc. ................................................................................     68
4.12    Begin a new paragraph when you talk about your 
study and your key findings #..........................................................     68
4.13    Break up long paragraphs # .............................................................     69
4.14    Look for the markers that indicate where you could 
begin a new sentence #.....................................................................     70
4.15    Concluding a paragraph: avoid redundancy.....................................     714.16    Summary ..........................................................................................     72
5    Being Concise and Removing Redundancy ............................................     73
5.1    Cut, cut and then cut again #............................................................     75
5.2    Write less, make less mistakes #......................................................     75
5.3    Cut redundant words # .....................................................................     76
5.4    Prefer verbs to nouns #.....................................................................     77
5.5    Use one verb (e.g. analyze) instead of a verb + noun 
(e.g. make an analysis) #..................................................................     77
5.6    Reduce the number of link words ....................................................     78
5.7    Choose the shortest words ...............................................................     79
5.8    Choose the shortest expressions.......................................................     80
5.9    Use the shortest adverbial expression ..............................................     81
5.10    Avoid pointless introductory phrases...............................................     81
5.11    Avoid impersonal expressions..........................................................     82
5.12    Reduce your authorial voice ............................................................     83
5.13    Be concise when referring to figures and tables..............................     83
5.14    Use the infinitive when expressing an aim.......................................     84
5.15    Redundancy versus Conciseness: an example .................................     84
5.16    Constantly ask yourself - does what I am writing 
add value for the reader?..................................................................     86
5.17    Summary ..........................................................................................     87
6    Avoiding Ambiguity and Vagueness ........................................................     89
6.1    which / who vs. that # ......................................................................     91
6.2    which, that and who # ......................................................................     92
6.3    -ing form vs. that #...........................................................................     92
6.4    - ing form vs. subject + verb # .........................................................     93
6.5    - ing form with by and thus # ...........................................................     94
6.6    a, one and the # ................................................................................     95
6.7    Uncountable nouns...........................................................................     96
6.8    Pronouns # .......................................................................................     97
6.9    Referring backwards: the former, the latter .....................................     99
6.10    above and below...............................................................................   100
6.11    Use of respectively to disambiguate.................................................   100
6.12    and #.................................................................................................   101
6.13    both … and, either … or ..................................................................   101
6.14    False friends .....................................................................................   102
6.15    Latin words - i.e. versus e.g. ............................................................   102
6.16    Monologophobia - the constant search for synonyms # ..................   103
6.17    Be as precise as possible # ...............................................................   104
6.18    Choose the least generic word .........................................................   106
6.19    Summary ..........................................................................................   107
7    Clarifying Who Did What........................................................................   109
7.1    Check your journal’s style - first person or passive #......................   111
7.2    How to form the passive and when to use it # .................................   111
7.3    Ensure you use the right tenses to differentiate your work 
from others, particularly when your journal prohibits 
the use of we.....................................................................................   112
7.4    For journals that allow personal forms, 
use we to distinguish yourself from other authors ...........................   114
7.5    Do not use we to explain your thought process ...............................   115
7.6    When we is acceptable, even when you are not 
distinguishing yourself from other authors......................................   115
7.7    Make good use of references # ........................................................   116
7.8    Ensure that readers understand what you mean 
when you write the authors #...........................................................   117
7.9    Use short paragraphs #.....................................................................   118
7.10    Make logical connections between other authors’ 
findings and yours #.........................................................................   118
7.11    Summary ..........................................................................................   119
8    Highlighting Your Findings......................................................................   121
8.1    Ensure that referees can find and understand 
the importance of your contribution #..............................................   123
8.2    Help your findings to stand out visually 
on the page by beginning a new paragraph #...................................   123
8.3    Make your sentences shorter than normal .......................................   124
8.4    Present your key findings in a very short sentence 
and list the implications ...................................................................   125
8.5    Consider using bullets and headings................................................   126
8.6    Use tables and figures to attract attention........................................   127
8.7    Signal to the reader that you are about to say something 
important by using more dynamic language....................................   127
8.8    Only use specific terms when describing your key findings #.........   128
8.9    Avoid flat phrases when discussing key findings #..........................   128
8.10    Be explicit about your findings, so that even a non-expert 
can understand them ........................................................................   129
8.11    Convincing readers to believe your interpretation 
of your data ......................................................................................   130
8.12    Show your paper to a non-expert and get him / her 
to underline your key findings.........................................................   131
8.13    Beware of overstating your project’s achievements 
and significance................................................................................   132
8.14    Summary ..........................................................................................   132
9    Hedging and Criticising............................................................................   133
9.1    Why and when to hedge #................................................................   135
9.2    Highlighting and hedging ................................................................   137
9.3    Toning down verbs...........................................................................   138
9.4    Toning down adjectives and adverbs................................................   138
9.5    Toning down strong claims by inserting adverbs.............................   139
9.6    Toning down the level of probability ...............................................   140
9.7    Anticipating alternative interpretations of your data .......................   141
9.8    Telling the reader from what standpoint you 
wish them to view your data ............................................................   142
9.9    Dealing with the limitations of your research..................................   143
9.10    Saving your own face: revealing and obscuring 
your identity as the author in humanist subjects..............................   144
9.11    Saving other author’s faces: put their research 
in a positive light..............................................................................   145
9.12    Saving other author’s faces: say their findings 
are open to another interpretation ....................................................   146
9.13    Don’t overhedge...............................................................................   146
9.14    Hedging: An extended example from a Discussion section ............   147
9.15    Summary ..........................................................................................   149
10    Paraphrasing and Plagiarism ................................................................   151
10.1    Plagiarism is not difficult to spot # ..............................................   153
10.2    You can copy generic phrases # ...................................................   153
10.3    How to quote directly from other papers .....................................   154
10.4    How to quote from another paper by paraphrasing #...................   155
10.5    Examples of how and how not to paraphrase #............................   157
10.6    Paraphrasing the work of a third author.......................................   158
10.7    How to check whether you have inadvertently 
committed plagiarism...................................................................   158
10.8    Summary......................................................................................   159
Part II    Sections of a Paper
11    Titles .........................................................................................................   163
11.1    How can I generate a title? #........................................................   165
11.2    How can I make my title more dynamic? ....................................   165
11.3    Can I use my title to make a claim?.............................................   166
11.4    Are questions in titles a good way to attract attention? ...............   166
11.5    When is a two-part title a good idea?...........................................   167
11.6    How should I punctuate my title? ................................................   167
11.7    What words should I capitalize? ..................................................   167
11.8    What types of words should I try to include? ..............................   168
11.9    What other criteria should I use to decide whether 
to include certain words or not?...................................................   168
11.10    Will adjectives such as innovative and novel
attract attention?...........................................................................   169
11.11    How can I make my title shorter? ................................................   170
11.12    Is it a good idea to make my title concise by having 
a string of nouns? # ......................................................................   170
11.13    Should I use prepositions? # ........................................................   172
11.14    Are articles (a / an, the) necessary? # ..........................................   172
11.15    How do I know whether to use a or an? ......................................   174
11.16    Is using an automatic spell check enough? # ...............................   175
11.17    Summary: How can I assess the quality of my title? # ................   176
12    Abstracts ..................................................................................................   177
12.1    What is an abstract? How long should it be? # ............................   179
12.2    When should I write the Abstract?...............................................   179
12.3    How should I structure my Abstract? # .......................................   180
12.4    Formal, natural and applied sciences. 
How should I structure my abstract? How much 
background information? .............................................................   180
12.5    Social and behavioral sciences. How should I structure 
my abstract? How much background information? .....................   181
12.6    I am a historian. We don’t necessarily get ‘results’ 
or follow a specific methodology. What should I do? .................   182
12.7    I am writing a review. How should I structure 
my Abstract? ................................................................................   183
12.8    How should I begin my Abstract?................................................   184
12.9    What style should I use: personal or impersonal? .......................   185
12.10    What tenses should I use? ............................................................   186
12.11    How do I write a structured abstract? ..........................................   187
12.12    How do I write an abstract for a conference? ..............................   188
12.13    How do I write an abstract for a work in progress 
that will be presented at a conference? ........................................   189
12.14    How should I select my key words? How often should 
I repeat them?...............................................................................   190
12.15    Should I mention any limitations in my research?.......................   190
12.16    What should I not mention in my Abstract? ................................   191
12.17    How can I ensure that my Abstract has maximum impact?.........   191
12.18    What are some of the typical characteristics 
of poor abstracts? # ......................................................................   191
12.19    Summary: How can I assess the quality of my Abstract? #.........   193
13    Introduction.............................................................................................   195
13.1    How should I structure the Introduction? # .................................   197
13.2    How should I begin my Introduction? # ......................................   197
13.3    How should I structure the rest of the Introduction? # ................   199
13.4    I do not work in the field of a ‘hard’ science. 
Are there any other ways of beginning an Introduction?.............   200
13.5    What typical phrases should I avoid in my Introduction?............   201
13.6    How does an Introduction differ from an Abstract? ....................   201
13.7    What tenses should I use? # .........................................................   203
13.8    How should I outline the structure of my paper?.........................   204
13.9    Summary: How can I assess the quality 
of my Introduction? #...................................................................   205
14    Review of the Literature.........................................................................   207
14.1    How should I structure my Review of the Literature? # ..............   209
14.2    How should I begin my literature review? 
How can I structure it to show the progress 
through the years? # .....................................................................   209
14.3    What is the clearest way to refer to other authors? 
Should I focus on the authors or their ideas? #............................   210
14.4    What tenses should I use? # .........................................................   211
14.5    How can I reduce the amount I write when reporting 
the literature? ...............................................................................   213
14.6    How can I talk about the limitations of previous work 
and the novelty of my work in a constructive 
and diplomatic way? ....................................................................   214
14.7    Summary: How can I assess the quality 
of my Literature Review? #..........................................................   215
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15    Methods....................................................................................................   217
15.1    How should I structure the Methods? # .......................................   219
15.2    How should I begin the Methods? # ............................................   219
15.3    What tense should I use? Should I use the active 
or passive? #.................................................................................   220
15.4    How many actions can I refer to in a single sentence? # .............   221
15.5    How can I avoid my Methods appearing like 
a series of lists? ............................................................................   222
15.6    Can I use bullets? .........................................................................   223
15.7    How can I reduce the word count?...............................................   223
15.8    How should I designate my study parameters 
in a way that my readers do not have to constantly 
refer backwards? ..........................................................................   223
15.9    Should I describe everything in chronological order? .................   224
15.10    What grammatical constructions can I use to justify 
my aims and choices? ..................................................................   225
15.11    What grammatical construction is used with allow, 
enable and permit? #....................................................................   225
15.12    How can I indicate the consequences of my 
choices and actions?.....................................................................   227
15.13    How should I use the definite and indefinite articles 
in the Methods?............................................................................   227
15.14    Should I write numbers as digits (e.g. 5, 7) or as words 
(e.g. five, seven)? .........................................................................   228
15.15    How can I avoid ambiguity? ........................................................   229
15.16    What other points should I include in the Methods? 
How should I end the Methods? # ...............................................   230
15.17    Summary: How can I assess the quality 
of my Methods section? # ............................................................   231
16    Results ......................................................................................................   233
16.1    How should I structure the Results? # .........................................   235
16.2    How should I begin the Results? #...............................................   235
16.3    How should I structure the rest of the Results? 
How should I end the Results? #..................................................   235
16.4    Should I report any negative results? # ........................................   236
16.5    What tenses should I use when reporting my Results? #.............   236
16.6    What style should I use when reporting my Results? # ...............   237
16.7    Can I use a more personal style?..................................................   238
16.8    How can I show my readers the value of my data, 
rather than just telling them?........................................................   238
16.9    How should I comment on my tables and figures? ......................   239
16.10    What is the difference between reporting and interpreting? ........   240
16.11    How can I make it clear that I am talking about 
my findings and not the findings of others? #..............................   241
16.12    Summary: How can I assess the quality 
of my Results section? # ..............................................................   242
17    Discussion.................................................................................................   243
17.1    How should I structure the Discussion? #....................................   245
17.2    How should I begin the Discussion? #.........................................   246
17.3    Why should I compare my work with that of others? #...............   246
17.4    How should I compare my work with that of others? #...............   247
17.5    How should I end the Discussion if I do have 
a Conclusions section?.................................................................   249
17.6    How should I end the Discussion if I do not
have a Conclusions section? ........................................................   250
17.7    Active or passive? What kind of writing style should I use? # ....   250
17.8    How can I give my interpretation of my data while 
taking into account other possible interpretations 
that I do not agree with?...............................................................   251
17.9    How can I bring a little excitement to my Discussion? ...............   252
17.10    How can I use seems and appears to admit that I have 
not investigated all possible cases? ..............................................   254
17.11    How can I show the pitfalls of other works 
in the literature? ...........................................................................   254
17.12    How should I discuss the limitations of my research? #..............   254
17.13    What other ways are there to lessen the negative 
impact of the limitations of my study? ........................................   256
17.14    Summary: How can I assess the quality 
of my Discussion?........................................................................   257
18    Conclusions..............................................................................................   259
18.1   How should I structure the Conclusions? # .................................   261
18.2    How should I begin my Conclusions? 
How can I increase the impact of my Conclusions? # .................   262
18.3    How can I differentiate my Conclusions 
from my Abstract? .......................................................................   263
18.4    How can I differentiate my Conclusions 
from my Introduction and from the last paragraph 
of my Discussion?........................................................................   265
18.5    I don’t have any clear Conclusions, what can I do?.....................   265
18.6    How can I end my Conclusions? #...............................................   266
18.7    What tenses should I use? ............................................................   268
18.8    Summary: How can I assess the quality 
of my Conclusions? #...................................................................   269
19    Useful Phrases .........................................................................................   271
19.1    Index of Useful Phrases # ............................................................   273
19.2    How to use the Useful Phrases #..................................................   274
20    The Final Check ......................................................................................   295
20.1    Ensure your paper is as good as it could possibly 
be the first time you submit it # ...................................................   297
20.2    Print out your paper. Don’t just correct it directly 
on your computer # ......................................................................   297
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20.3    Always have the referee in mind #...............................................   297
20.4    Anticipate referees’ comments on your English #.......................   298
20.5    Judge your writing in English in the same way 
as you would judge it if you had written the paper 
in your native language ................................................................   300
20.6    Cut, cut, cut and keep cutting #....................................................   301
20.7    Check your paper for readability .................................................   302
20.8    Check for clarity in the logical order of your 
argumentation...............................................................................   303
20.9    Do a ‘quality control’ on your paper............................................   303
20.10    Be careful with cut and pastes .....................................................   303
20.11    Double check that you have followed the journal’s 
style guide # .................................................................................   304
20.12    Make sure that everything is completely accurate # ....................   304
20.13    Make sure everything is consistent # ...........................................   304
20.14    Dealing with rejections ................................................................   305
20.15    Take editorial comments seriously...............................................   306
20.16    Consider using a professional editing service #...........................   306
20.17    Don’t forget the Acknowledgements ...........................................   306
20.18    Write a good letter / email to accompany 
your manuscript ...........................................................................   307
20.19    Final check: spelling. Don’t underestimate 
the importance of spelling mistakes #..........................................   307
20.20    Summary #...................................................................................   308
Links and References......................................................................................   309
Acknowledgements .........................................................................................   315
About the Author ............................................................................................   317
Contact the Author .........................................................................................   319
Index.................................................................................................................   321

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