Who is this book for?
This book is aimed at researchers in any discipline who wish to write a research
paper in English. If your first language is not English, you should find this book
particularly useful.
Who else will benefit from reading this book?
Proofreaders, those who work for editing services, referees, journal editors and
EFL, ESL and EAP trainers should also find this book useful. I hope to be able to
show you the reasons why the English of non-native speakers often does not com-
ply with the standards of international journals. Knowing these reasons should then
help you to give advice to authors on how to improve their manuscripts, and stu-
dents on how to improve their writing in general. It should also help you understand
the difficulties that non-natives have when writing in English.
Finally, if you are a tutor, supervisor or professor of any nationality, I hope that
you will use this book as a resource to help your students improve their scientific
writing skills. I imagine that you are generally able to identify the errors in writing
made by your students, but you may not have the time or knowledge to explain how
to rectify such mistakes.
READ THIS BOOK AT THE END OF THIS POST
Contents
The symbol # indicates that inexperienced writers should pay particular attention to
this subsection.
Part I Writing Skills
1 Planning and Preparation ........................................................................ 3
1.1 Think about why you want to publish your research #.................... 5
1.2 Give yourself enough time to plan and write your manuscript #..... 5
1.3 Choose an appropriate journal, preferably with a high
impact factor .................................................................................... 5
1.4 Download the instructions for authors from your chosen
journal AND from a high impact journal in the same field #.......... 6
1.5 Read and analyze papers for your literature review,
and note how they are structured ..................................................... 7
1.6 Identify what the editor is looking for ............................................. 8
1.7 Choose one paper as a model and note down useful phrases #........ 9
1.8 Think about the order in which to write the various sections # ....... 9
1.9 Create separate files for each section............................................... 10
1.10 Chat with non experts # ................................................................... 11
1.11 Give mini presentations to colleagues ............................................. 11
1.12 Decide what your key findings are and whether
you really have a contribution to make # ......................................... 11
1.13 For each section, think about how you can highlight
your key findings #........................................................................... 12
1.14 Always have the referees in mind # ................................................. 13
1.15 Referees and English level............................................................... 14
1.16 How to keep the referees happy....................................................... 14
1.17 Write directly in English and find ways
to improve your writing skills #....................................................... 15
1.18 Consult online resources #............................................................... 16
1.19 Summary .......................................................................................... 17
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2 Word Order ............................................................................................... 19
2.1 Basic word order in English #.......................................................... 21
2.2 Compare word order in your language with word order
in English ......................................................................................... 21
2.3 Choose the most relevant subject and put it at the beginning
of the sentence #............................................................................... 22
2.4 Choose the subject that leads to the most concise sentence............. 23
2.5 Don’t make the impersonal it the subject of the sentence................ 23
2.6 Don’t use a pronoun (it, they) before you introduce
the noun (i.e. the subject of the sentence)
that the pronoun refers to ................................................................. 23
2.7 Put the subject before the verb #...................................................... 24
2.8 Keep the subject and verb as close as possible to each other #........ 24
2.9 Avoid inserting parenthetical information between
the subject and the verb #................................................................. 25
2.10 Don’t separate the verb from its direct object #............................... 26
2.11 Put the direct object before the indirect object # ............................. 26
2.12 How to choose where to locate an adverb........................................ 27
2.13 Put adjectives before the noun they describe,
or use a relative clause # .................................................................. 29
2.14 Do not insert an adjective between two nouns
or before the wrong noun #.............................................................. 29
2.15 Avoid creating strings of nouns that describe other nouns # ........... 30
2.16 Ensure there is no ambiguity in the order of the words # ................ 30
2.17 Summary .......................................................................................... 32
3 Breaking Up Long Sentences ................................................................... 33
3.1 Think above all about the reader #................................................... 35
3.2 The longer your sentence, the greater the chance it will be
misunderstood # ............................................................................... 35
3.3 Short sentences are not a sign of inelegance and superficiality......... 36
3.4 Why and how long sentences are created # ..................................... 37
3.5 and #................................................................................................. 38
3.6 as well as.......................................................................................... 40
3.7 Other link words that introduce additional information:
moreover, in addition, furthermore .................................................. 40
3.8 Link words that compare and contrast:
whereas, on the other hand; although, however.............................. 41
3.9 Link words that give explanations: because, since, as, in fact ........... 42
3.10 Link words that express consequences: owing to,
due to, as a result of, consequently, thus etc. ................................... 42
3.11 which and relative clauses #............................................................. 43
3.12 - ing form ......................................................................................... 45
3.13 in order to......................................................................................... 46
3.14 Excessive numbers of commas # ..................................................... 47
3.15 Semicolons....................................................................................... 48
3.16 Semicolons in lists ........................................................................... 49
3.17 Phrases in parentheses...................................................................... 50
3.18 Summary .......................................................................................... 51
4 Structuring Paragraphs and Sentences .................................................. 53
4.1 The key to good writing: always think about the reader #............... 55
4.2 General structure of a paragraph #................................................... 56
4.3 How to structure a paragraph: an example #.................................... 57
4.4 First paragraph of a new section - begin with
a mini summary plus an indication of the structure......................... 59
4.5 First paragraph of a new section - go directly to the point .............. 60
4.6 Deciding where to put new and old information
within a paragraph #......................................................................... 61
4.7 Deciding where to put new and old information
within a sentence #........................................................................... 63
4.8 Link each sentence by moving from general
concepts to increasingly more specific concepts............................. 64
4.9 Present and explain ideas in the same (logical) sequence................ 65
4.10 Don’t force the reader to have to change their perspective.............. 67
4.11 Use a consistent numbering system to list phases,
states, parts etc. ................................................................................ 68
4.12 Begin a new paragraph when you talk about your
study and your key findings #.......................................................... 68
4.13 Break up long paragraphs # ............................................................. 69
4.14 Look for the markers that indicate where you could
begin a new sentence #..................................................................... 70
4.15 Concluding a paragraph: avoid redundancy..................................... 714.16 Summary .......................................................................................... 72
5 Being Concise and Removing Redundancy ............................................ 73
5.1 Cut, cut and then cut again #............................................................ 75
5.2 Write less, make less mistakes #...................................................... 75
5.3 Cut redundant words # ..................................................................... 76
5.4 Prefer verbs to nouns #..................................................................... 77
5.5 Use one verb (e.g. analyze) instead of a verb + noun
(e.g. make an analysis) #.................................................................. 77
5.6 Reduce the number of link words .................................................... 78
5.7 Choose the shortest words ............................................................... 79
5.8 Choose the shortest expressions....................................................... 80
5.9 Use the shortest adverbial expression .............................................. 81
5.10 Avoid pointless introductory phrases............................................... 81
5.11 Avoid impersonal expressions.......................................................... 82
5.12 Reduce your authorial voice ............................................................ 83
5.13 Be concise when referring to figures and tables.............................. 83
5.14 Use the infinitive when expressing an aim....................................... 84
5.15 Redundancy versus Conciseness: an example ................................. 84
5.16 Constantly ask yourself - does what I am writing
add value for the reader?.................................................................. 86
5.17 Summary .......................................................................................... 87
6 Avoiding Ambiguity and Vagueness ........................................................ 89
6.1 which / who vs. that # ...................................................................... 91
6.2 which, that and who # ...................................................................... 92
6.3 -ing form vs. that #........................................................................... 92
6.4 - ing form vs. subject + verb # ......................................................... 93
6.5 - ing form with by and thus # ........................................................... 94
6.6 a, one and the # ................................................................................ 95
6.7 Uncountable nouns........................................................................... 96
6.8 Pronouns # ....................................................................................... 97
6.9 Referring backwards: the former, the latter ..................................... 99
6.10 above and below............................................................................... 100
6.11 Use of respectively to disambiguate................................................. 100
6.12 and #................................................................................................. 101
6.13 both … and, either … or .................................................................. 101
6.14 False friends ..................................................................................... 102
6.15 Latin words - i.e. versus e.g. ............................................................ 102
6.16 Monologophobia - the constant search for synonyms # .................. 103
6.17 Be as precise as possible # ............................................................... 104
6.18 Choose the least generic word ......................................................... 106
6.19 Summary .......................................................................................... 107
7 Clarifying Who Did What........................................................................ 109
7.1 Check your journal’s style - first person or passive #...................... 111
7.2 How to form the passive and when to use it # ................................. 111
7.3 Ensure you use the right tenses to differentiate your work
from others, particularly when your journal prohibits
the use of we..................................................................................... 112
7.4 For journals that allow personal forms,
use we to distinguish yourself from other authors ........................... 114
7.5 Do not use we to explain your thought process ............................... 115
7.6 When we is acceptable, even when you are not
distinguishing yourself from other authors...................................... 115
7.7 Make good use of references # ........................................................ 116
7.8 Ensure that readers understand what you mean
when you write the authors #........................................................... 117
7.9 Use short paragraphs #..................................................................... 118
7.10 Make logical connections between other authors’
findings and yours #......................................................................... 118
7.11 Summary .......................................................................................... 119
8 Highlighting Your Findings...................................................................... 121
8.1 Ensure that referees can find and understand
the importance of your contribution #.............................................. 123
8.2 Help your findings to stand out visually
on the page by beginning a new paragraph #................................... 123
8.3 Make your sentences shorter than normal ....................................... 124
8.4 Present your key findings in a very short sentence
and list the implications ................................................................... 125
8.5 Consider using bullets and headings................................................ 126
8.6 Use tables and figures to attract attention........................................ 127
8.7 Signal to the reader that you are about to say something
important by using more dynamic language.................................... 127
8.8 Only use specific terms when describing your key findings #......... 128
8.9 Avoid flat phrases when discussing key findings #.......................... 128
8.10 Be explicit about your findings, so that even a non-expert
can understand them ........................................................................ 129
8.11 Convincing readers to believe your interpretation
of your data ...................................................................................... 130
8.12 Show your paper to a non-expert and get him / her
to underline your key findings......................................................... 131
8.13 Beware of overstating your project’s achievements
and significance................................................................................ 132
8.14 Summary .......................................................................................... 132
9 Hedging and Criticising............................................................................ 133
9.1 Why and when to hedge #................................................................ 135
9.2 Highlighting and hedging ................................................................ 137
9.3 Toning down verbs........................................................................... 138
9.4 Toning down adjectives and adverbs................................................ 138
9.5 Toning down strong claims by inserting adverbs............................. 139
9.6 Toning down the level of probability ............................................... 140
9.7 Anticipating alternative interpretations of your data ....................... 141
9.8 Telling the reader from what standpoint you
wish them to view your data ............................................................ 142
9.9 Dealing with the limitations of your research.................................. 143
9.10 Saving your own face: revealing and obscuring
your identity as the author in humanist subjects.............................. 144
9.11 Saving other author’s faces: put their research
in a positive light.............................................................................. 145
9.12 Saving other author’s faces: say their findings
are open to another interpretation .................................................... 146
9.13 Don’t overhedge............................................................................... 146
9.14 Hedging: An extended example from a Discussion section ............ 147
9.15 Summary .......................................................................................... 149
10 Paraphrasing and Plagiarism ................................................................ 151
10.1 Plagiarism is not difficult to spot # .............................................. 153
10.2 You can copy generic phrases # ................................................... 153
10.3 How to quote directly from other papers ..................................... 154
10.4 How to quote from another paper by paraphrasing #................... 155
10.5 Examples of how and how not to paraphrase #............................ 157
10.6 Paraphrasing the work of a third author....................................... 158
10.7 How to check whether you have inadvertently
committed plagiarism................................................................... 158
10.8 Summary...................................................................................... 159
Part II Sections of a Paper
11 Titles ......................................................................................................... 163
11.1 How can I generate a title? #........................................................ 165
11.2 How can I make my title more dynamic? .................................... 165
11.3 Can I use my title to make a claim?............................................. 166
11.4 Are questions in titles a good way to attract attention? ............... 166
11.5 When is a two-part title a good idea?........................................... 167
11.6 How should I punctuate my title? ................................................ 167
11.7 What words should I capitalize? .................................................. 167
11.8 What types of words should I try to include? .............................. 168
11.9 What other criteria should I use to decide whether
to include certain words or not?................................................... 168
11.10 Will adjectives such as innovative and novel
attract attention?........................................................................... 169
11.11 How can I make my title shorter? ................................................ 170
11.12 Is it a good idea to make my title concise by having
a string of nouns? # ...................................................................... 170
11.13 Should I use prepositions? # ........................................................ 172
11.14 Are articles (a / an, the) necessary? # .......................................... 172
11.15 How do I know whether to use a or an? ...................................... 174
11.16 Is using an automatic spell check enough? # ............................... 175
11.17 Summary: How can I assess the quality of my title? # ................ 176
12 Abstracts .................................................................................................. 177
12.1 What is an abstract? How long should it be? # ............................ 179
12.2 When should I write the Abstract?............................................... 179
12.3 How should I structure my Abstract? # ....................................... 180
12.4 Formal, natural and applied sciences.
How should I structure my abstract? How much
background information? ............................................................. 180
12.5 Social and behavioral sciences. How should I structure
my abstract? How much background information? ..................... 181
12.6 I am a historian. We don’t necessarily get ‘results’
or follow a specific methodology. What should I do? ................. 182
12.7 I am writing a review. How should I structure
my Abstract? ................................................................................ 183
12.8 How should I begin my Abstract?................................................ 184
12.9 What style should I use: personal or impersonal? ....................... 185
12.10 What tenses should I use? ............................................................ 186
12.11 How do I write a structured abstract? .......................................... 187
12.12 How do I write an abstract for a conference? .............................. 188
12.13 How do I write an abstract for a work in progress
that will be presented at a conference? ........................................ 189
12.14 How should I select my key words? How often should
I repeat them?............................................................................... 190
12.15 Should I mention any limitations in my research?....................... 190
12.16 What should I not mention in my Abstract? ................................ 191
12.17 How can I ensure that my Abstract has maximum impact?......... 191
12.18 What are some of the typical characteristics
of poor abstracts? # ...................................................................... 191
12.19 Summary: How can I assess the quality of my Abstract? #......... 193
13 Introduction............................................................................................. 195
13.1 How should I structure the Introduction? # ................................. 197
13.2 How should I begin my Introduction? # ...................................... 197
13.3 How should I structure the rest of the Introduction? # ................ 199
13.4 I do not work in the field of a ‘hard’ science.
Are there any other ways of beginning an Introduction?............. 200
13.5 What typical phrases should I avoid in my Introduction?............ 201
13.6 How does an Introduction differ from an Abstract? .................... 201
13.7 What tenses should I use? # ......................................................... 203
13.8 How should I outline the structure of my paper?......................... 204
13.9 Summary: How can I assess the quality
of my Introduction? #................................................................... 205
14 Review of the Literature......................................................................... 207
14.1 How should I structure my Review of the Literature? # .............. 209
14.2 How should I begin my literature review?
How can I structure it to show the progress
through the years? # ..................................................................... 209
14.3 What is the clearest way to refer to other authors?
Should I focus on the authors or their ideas? #............................ 210
14.4 What tenses should I use? # ......................................................... 211
14.5 How can I reduce the amount I write when reporting
the literature? ............................................................................... 213
14.6 How can I talk about the limitations of previous work
and the novelty of my work in a constructive
and diplomatic way? .................................................................... 214
14.7 Summary: How can I assess the quality
of my Literature Review? #.......................................................... 215
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15 Methods.................................................................................................... 217
15.1 How should I structure the Methods? # ....................................... 219
15.2 How should I begin the Methods? # ............................................ 219
15.3 What tense should I use? Should I use the active
or passive? #................................................................................. 220
15.4 How many actions can I refer to in a single sentence? # ............. 221
15.5 How can I avoid my Methods appearing like
a series of lists? ............................................................................ 222
15.6 Can I use bullets? ......................................................................... 223
15.7 How can I reduce the word count?............................................... 223
15.8 How should I designate my study parameters
in a way that my readers do not have to constantly
refer backwards? .......................................................................... 223
15.9 Should I describe everything in chronological order? ................. 224
15.10 What grammatical constructions can I use to justify
my aims and choices? .................................................................. 225
15.11 What grammatical construction is used with allow,
enable and permit? #.................................................................... 225
15.12 How can I indicate the consequences of my
choices and actions?..................................................................... 227
15.13 How should I use the definite and indefinite articles
in the Methods?............................................................................ 227
15.14 Should I write numbers as digits (e.g. 5, 7) or as words
(e.g. five, seven)? ......................................................................... 228
15.15 How can I avoid ambiguity? ........................................................ 229
15.16 What other points should I include in the Methods?
How should I end the Methods? # ............................................... 230
15.17 Summary: How can I assess the quality
of my Methods section? # ............................................................ 231
16 Results ...................................................................................................... 233
16.1 How should I structure the Results? # ......................................... 235
16.2 How should I begin the Results? #............................................... 235
16.3 How should I structure the rest of the Results?
How should I end the Results? #.................................................. 235
16.4 Should I report any negative results? # ........................................ 236
16.5 What tenses should I use when reporting my Results? #............. 236
16.6 What style should I use when reporting my Results? # ............... 237
16.7 Can I use a more personal style?.................................................. 238
16.8 How can I show my readers the value of my data,
rather than just telling them?........................................................ 238
16.9 How should I comment on my tables and figures? ...................... 239
16.10 What is the difference between reporting and interpreting? ........ 240
16.11 How can I make it clear that I am talking about
my findings and not the findings of others? #.............................. 241
16.12 Summary: How can I assess the quality
of my Results section? # .............................................................. 242
17 Discussion................................................................................................. 243
17.1 How should I structure the Discussion? #.................................... 245
17.2 How should I begin the Discussion? #......................................... 246
17.3 Why should I compare my work with that of others? #............... 246
17.4 How should I compare my work with that of others? #............... 247
17.5 How should I end the Discussion if I do have
a Conclusions section?................................................................. 249
17.6 How should I end the Discussion if I do not
have a Conclusions section? ........................................................ 250
17.7 Active or passive? What kind of writing style should I use? # .... 250
17.8 How can I give my interpretation of my data while
taking into account other possible interpretations
that I do not agree with?............................................................... 251
17.9 How can I bring a little excitement to my Discussion? ............... 252
17.10 How can I use seems and appears to admit that I have
not investigated all possible cases? .............................................. 254
17.11 How can I show the pitfalls of other works
in the literature? ........................................................................... 254
17.12 How should I discuss the limitations of my research? #.............. 254
17.13 What other ways are there to lessen the negative
impact of the limitations of my study? ........................................ 256
17.14 Summary: How can I assess the quality
of my Discussion?........................................................................ 257
18 Conclusions.............................................................................................. 259
18.1 How should I structure the Conclusions? # ................................. 261
18.2 How should I begin my Conclusions?
How can I increase the impact of my Conclusions? # ................. 262
18.3 How can I differentiate my Conclusions
from my Abstract? ....................................................................... 263
18.4 How can I differentiate my Conclusions
from my Introduction and from the last paragraph
of my Discussion?........................................................................ 265
18.5 I don’t have any clear Conclusions, what can I do?..................... 265
18.6 How can I end my Conclusions? #............................................... 266
18.7 What tenses should I use? ............................................................ 268
18.8 Summary: How can I assess the quality
of my Conclusions? #................................................................... 269
19 Useful Phrases ......................................................................................... 271
19.1 Index of Useful Phrases # ............................................................ 273
19.2 How to use the Useful Phrases #.................................................. 274
20 The Final Check ...................................................................................... 295
20.1 Ensure your paper is as good as it could possibly
be the first time you submit it # ................................................... 297
20.2 Print out your paper. Don’t just correct it directly
on your computer # ...................................................................... 297
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20.3 Always have the referee in mind #............................................... 297
20.4 Anticipate referees’ comments on your English #....................... 298
20.5 Judge your writing in English in the same way
as you would judge it if you had written the paper
in your native language ................................................................ 300
20.6 Cut, cut, cut and keep cutting #.................................................... 301
20.7 Check your paper for readability ................................................. 302
20.8 Check for clarity in the logical order of your
argumentation............................................................................... 303
20.9 Do a ‘quality control’ on your paper............................................ 303
20.10 Be careful with cut and pastes ..................................................... 303
20.11 Double check that you have followed the journal’s
style guide # ................................................................................. 304
20.12 Make sure that everything is completely accurate # .................... 304
20.13 Make sure everything is consistent # ........................................... 304
20.14 Dealing with rejections ................................................................ 305
20.15 Take editorial comments seriously............................................... 306
20.16 Consider using a professional editing service #........................... 306
20.17 Don’t forget the Acknowledgements ........................................... 306
20.18 Write a good letter / email to accompany
your manuscript ........................................................................... 307
20.19 Final check: spelling. Don’t underestimate
the importance of spelling mistakes #.......................................... 307
20.20 Summary #................................................................................... 308
Links and References...................................................................................... 309
Acknowledgements ......................................................................................... 315
About the Author ............................................................................................ 317
Contact the Author ......................................................................................... 319
Index................................................................................................................. 321
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